Weather Observation, Soundings and Forecast Verification

Convert collected liquid volume to rain depth, or depth to collector volume, using the measured horizontal opening area and water-equivalent units.

Record timestamped weather observations, trace rain and exact pressure changes, or compare co-timed sensors with bias, MAE and RMSE summaries.

Convert liquid-equivalent rain-rate units and integrate interval-mean rates with visible missing intervals, time gaps and known-depth coverage.

Summarize daily climate coverage, rain and degree days, then compare observations with supplied normals on the same matched calendar dates.

Calculate dew or frost point and vapor pressure using a documented ice/water saturation model, with explicit zero-humidity and range limits.

Calculate pressure-aware wet or ice bulb using station pressure and humidity, with separate phase solutions and clear near-freezing ambiguity.

Calculate contrast-limited range and 5% meteorological optical range from extinction or transmission, retaining the optical measurement basis.

Convert mean wind speed and look up Beaufort force using published whole-knot intervals, with visible rounding and original measurement values.

Verify matched scalar, wind-direction and probability forecasts with error scores, common-reference skill, lead groups and reliability bins.

Calculate environmental lapse rates and inspect actual sounding levels for inversions, freezing crossings, potential temperature and bulk shear.

Calculate standard-troposphere pressure or hypsometric layer thickness from actual pressures and a documented mean virtual temperature.

Integrate supplied virtual-temperature profiles for CAPE and CIN on explicit bounds, or estimate a documented uniform negative-buoyancy layer.

Calculate lifted index from supplied environment and parcel temperatures at 500 hPa, keeping the parcel method and index limitations explicit.

Inspect entered radar Z–R relationships, effective-Earth beam heights and two-frame constant motion, with measurement and model limits visible.

Estimate surface-parcel condensation height from temperature and liquid-water dew point using the FAA convergence method and explicit limits.

Resolve signed headwind and crosswind from true bearings, or compare component extrema across a complete wind direction and speed sector.

Solve the wind triangle for a desired ground track, showing heading and forward speed while identifying physically infeasible wind cases.

Calculate ground-distance travel time with unit conversion, or sum unequal-speed route legs and explicit circling, climb or delay allowances.